Documentation

When you create a new wallet you create an XMSS tree, which is comprised of many public-private key pairs below a merkle tree to make a signature scheme. Every signature is referenced as your OTS index or One Time Signature key index.

One-time signatures (OTS) are called one-time, because the accompanying security reductions only guarantee security under single-message attacks.

The first post-quantum signature schemes considered for standardization are hash-based Merkle Signature Schemes. These schemes form the most confidence-inspiring post-quantum solution for digital signatures as their security only relies on some mild assumptions about properties of cryptographic hash-functions.

The OTS key index is limited. Once this index is used you will no longer be able to sign transactions. This can not be stressed enough!

If you use all of your OTS Key Indexes with funds in the wallet, these funds will be lost.

Important OTS Info

The OTS index or the One-Time Signature index is used when you sign a transaction onto the network.

You are required to specify which OTS index to use from the wallet file you have created. Depending on the tree height you selected when setting up the wallet you will start with anywhere from 16 to 262,144 OTS indexes.

You may not re-use any OTS key index. The QRL blockchain will reject any duplicated OTS key use automatically. This is done by design.

• If all OTS indexes are used, transactions cannot be signed.
• This means that if funds are in a wallet where all the one-time signatures have been used you will not be able to transfer out of the wallet and their contents will be lost.
• This applies for any tokens present in the wallet as well as Quanta

It is recommended to track the use of the OTS key and transfer all remaining funds to a newly created wallet before all of the OTS keys are exhausted.

XMSS Tree Height

You may chose to create a address with more or less OTS keys. The only disadvantage for creating a larger tree height is the time required to generate the additional keys. This can be configured only when an address is created.

If needed you can create an additional slaves.json file with up to 100 slave OTS keys allowing for additional TX’s using the same QRL address. For more information please see the Slaves.json documentation

OTS Bitfield Tracking

To aid in keeping track of the OTS keys used, QRL utilizes OTS Bitfield tracking. This allows a way to keep track of the first 8192 OTS keys and can determine where you are in the merkle tree based on previously used keys.

There are a few oddities with the OTS keys.

• First the OTS bitfield will only automatically track every OTS keys usage up to position 8192.
• The first 8192 keys can be used in any order, jumping around here is OK.
• Once you have advanced past the bitfield limit, you must use the keys in ascending order, as the last valid OTS position is recorded with a counter. Beyond the bitfield limit if you skip ahead and miss an OTS key position you will not be able to return back below that position and make a valid transaction.

Checking Used OTS

The QRL Explorer provides a visual representation of the OTS Bitfield for any wallet. This can be found by looking up your address in the explorer, and browsing to the OTS Tracker tab.

This tab will show all of the OTS keys that have been used in red and available keys in green.

This is a visual representation of the bitfield that is tracked by the nodes and used by both the wallet and the explorer.

Merkle tree signature schemes

Whilst one-time signatures provide satisfactory cryptographic security for signing and verifying transactions they have a major drawback that they may only be used once safely.

If a ledger address is based upon some transformation of the public key of a single OTS key pair then this would lead to an extremely restrictive blockchain ledger where all funds from a sending address would need to move with every single transaction performed - or those funds would be at risk of theft.

A solution is to extend the signature scheme to incorporate more than one valid OTS signature for each ledger address allowing as many signatures as OTS key pairs are pre-generated. A binary hash tree known as a merkle tree is a logical way to achieve this.

The general idea behind a merkle tree is an inverted tree composed of parent nodes computed by hashing the concatenation of child sibling nodes upwards in layers to the root.

The existence of any node or leaf can be cryptographically proven by computing the root. A merkle tree is formed from n base leaves and has height to merkle root, h (n = 2^h) - starting from the leaf hashes (layer 0) and counting upwards with each layer of nodes.

Each leaf node is created in our hypothetical ledger use-case by hashing a randomly pre-generated OTS public key. From the image above it can be seen that the node above each pair of leaf hashes is itself formed by hashing a concatenation of the child hashes.

This continues upwards through layers of the tree until confluence into the root hash of the tree, known as the merkle root.

From the example tree in the diagram, taking the merkle root as the public key, four pre-computed OTS keypairs can be used to generate four cryptographically secure valid one-time signatures. The merkle root of the binary hash tree can be transformed into a ledger address (possibly by iterative hashing with an appended checksum).

A full signature, S, of a message, M, for a given OTS keypair includes: the signature, s, the ots key number, n, and the merkle authentication path. i.e. for OTS keypair 0 (thus n = 0): S = s, n, OT S public key 0, H1, H2, H5, H6, root Given the OTS public key and leaf hash can be deduced from s, and parent nodes can be computed from their children in fact this may be shortened to: S = s, n, H2, H6, root Where S is valid by verifying the OTS public key from s and M, then checking the hashes from the merkle authentication path recreate a matching merkle root (public key).

XMSS

The extended merkle signature scheme (XMSS) was first reported by Buchmann et al. in 2011 and was published as an IETF draft last year. It is provably forward secure and existentially unforgeable under chosen message attacks with minimal security requirements: a PRF and a second pre-image resistant hash function.

The scheme allows extension of one-time signatures via a merkle tree with a major difference being the use of bitmask XOR of the child nodes prior to concatenation of the hashes into the parent node. The use of the bitmask XOR allows the collision resistant hash function family to be replaced.

The leaves of the tree are also not OTS key pair hashes but the root of child L-trees which hold the OTS public keys with, l pieces forming the base leaves. Winternitz OTS+ is used for the one-time signatures (though 2011 variant was first described).

References

• Oops, I did it again – Security of One-Time Signatures under Two-Message Attacks - Leon Groot Bruinderink and Andreas Hülsing

• QRL Whitepaper (PDF)